**Mycotoxins**

Molds form during the cultivation or storage of foods. While not all molds produce them, some generate toxic substances that cause illness when consumed by humans and/or animals. These substances are called mycotoxins. Preventing the development of molds in foods is difficult, but their quantities can be minimized by ensuring hygienic conditions during food processing and storage.

Mycotoxins accumulate in human organs like the liver and kidneys through the consumption of moldy and toxin-containing foods, and they can pass into milk when animals consume contaminated feeds. Mycotoxins should be seen and evaluated not just as a commercial problem but also as a serious threat to health.

Many agricultural products valuable for health and nutrition also carry risks concerning mycotoxins. These include basic food items consumed in large quantities like cereals, milk, and dairy products, as well as export products like hazelnuts, pistachios, dried figs, black olives, and red ground and flaked peppers. In some of these products, mycotoxins form naturally, while in many others they occur due to improper practices during harvesting, drying, transportation, processing, and storage.

Mycotoxins are produced by many types of molds, especially by *Aspergillus*, *Penicillium*, and *Fusarium* species.

- **Aflatoxins** adversely affect the liver.
- **Ochratoxin-A** adversely affects the kidneys.

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**Aflatoxins**

Aflatoxins are toxic metabolites produced by *Aspergillus flavus* or *A. parasiticus* found on/in foods and feeds. They are probably the most well-known and extensively researched mycotoxins worldwide. Aflatoxins are associated with various diseases like aflatoxicosis in farm animals, pets, and humans globally. The formation of aflatoxins depends on certain environmental factors; therefore, the amount of contamination varies according to geographical location, agricultural practices, and the susceptibility of products to mold invasion during harvesting, storage, and/or processing periods.

There are mainly four aflatoxins: B1, B2, G1, and G2. Aflatoxins often form in crops in the field before harvest. Post-harvest contamination is observed if the drying of the crop is delayed and moisture levels critical for mold growth are exceeded during storage. Insect and rodent infestations also facilitate mold growth in some stored products.

Aflatoxins are generally found in corn, peanuts, hazelnuts, almonds, dried fruits like figs, spices, and various grains. Contamination of milk, eggs, and meat products with aflatoxins is observed as a result of animals being fed aflatoxin-containing feeds.

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**Ochratoxins**

Species that produce ochratoxins include *Aspergillus ochraceus* and *Penicillium viridicatum*. The most important type is Ochratoxin A.

Ochratoxin A can be found in corn, oily seeds like hazelnuts, cereals such as barley, wheat, and oats, as well as in cocoa, chocolate products, and wines, along with some other foods.

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**Pesticides**

Pesticides are compounds that protect cultivated plants in agricultural food production from damages and diseases caused by insects and similar sources. Their most important groups are:

- **Herbicides** that protect plants from weeds
- **Fungicides** that prevent the growth of undesirable fungi
- **Insecticides** that protect plants against insect damages

The most significant ones are chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphorus acid esters, and carbamates.

The most critical group requiring attention is chlorinated hydrocarbons. These are stable, fat-soluble substances that can accumulate in fatty tissues of animals and humans and in the fat of human breast milk.